‘Alternative proteins’ is a general term that covers any substitute to traditional animal protein. These protein sources include plant-based protein, fermented protein, algae, cultured meat, 3D printed meat and insects. The texture of traditional meat has always been the most important factor in determining consumer acceptance, and the same is true for alternative protein sources.
For a consumer branching out to try a new, unfamiliar protein source, it is vital that its texture is favourable. The following are examples of Texture Analysis in alternative protein research.
Plant-based
Plant-based protein is simply a meaningful food source of protein made from plants. This can include pulses, tofu, soya, tempeh, seitan, nuts, seeds, certain grains and peas. Plant proteins are highly nutritious, containing high fibre, mineral and vitamin contents.
Researchers from the University of Guelph (Canada) have been investigating the physical properties of plant-based cheese products produced with zein. Plant-based cheese prototypes containing zein were prepared and evaluated to assess and compare their melting and stretching capabilities with conventional cheeses. Zein cheeses were produced containing 0%, 10%, 20% or 30% zein, and analysed for texture, rheology, stretchability and moisture content. They used their TA.XTplus Texture Analyser to measure the textural properties of samples. Samples prepared containing pea protein isolate or wheat gluten acted as comparisons to identify and highlight unique zein functionality. A commercially available cheddar cheese and a plant-based cheddar-style alternative were also analysed as sample standards.
Analysis revealed that zein cheeses can display highly analogous behaviour to cheddar cheese. Specifically, samples containing 30% zein softened and exhibited increased viscous properties with increasing temperatures. These samples also showed comparable textural characteristics and stretchability, determined by texture analysis affixed with a specifically designed stretching rig. This prototype also surpassed a comparative plant-based cheddar-style commercial product in each of these aspects. Overall, the observed properties of zein based cheese prototypes analysed here demonstrate that the concept of zein plant-based cheeses is extremely promising, with great potential for being inexpensive, sustainable products that provide the sensory properties that many people crave. Find out more…
A patent has recently been released by General Mills, entitled Nut Butter Composition. Nut butters are typically pastes made from grinding tree or ground nuts. They are often eaten alone or used as spreads or as ingredients in various foods, including snacks and sauces. Nut butters can contribute a nutty flavour to foods, whether sweet or savoury. Nut butters can also contribute plant-based protein to food products, which is frequently a characteristic desired by consumers. Consumers often enjoy new ways of incorporating nut butters into foods, and desire convenient foods that include nut butters. This patent describes a composition with a putty-like texture that give favourable handling characteristics. They used their TA.HDplus Texture Analyser to perform penetration tests on nut butter samples. Find out more
Fermented proteins
Fermented proteins are made by exposing plant matter such as rice grains or split peas to bacterial strains. This causes the carbohydrates to break down into smaller molecules, leading to faster digestion in the body. A large proportion of the carbohydrate molecules are removed, leaving behind a high protein content.
Scientists from the Federal University of Campina Grande (Brazil) have been researching solid-state fermentation for single-cell protein enrichment of guava and cashew by-products and inclusion on cereal bars. Food by-products derived from industrial processing present high potential to be reused as ingredients for human nutrition. However, even though food by-products are often reprocessed and studied, few studies report the inclusion of such by-products on new food products and assess the new product acceptability.
Therefore, in this study, guava peels and cashew bagasse were subjected to solid-state fermentation for protein enrichment through single-cell protein and then included on cereal bars for human nutrition. The protein-enriched by-products were included in three different formulations of cereal bars, and physicochemical, instrumental texture, and sensorial analysis was performed.
They used their TA.XT2i Texture Analyser to perform mechanical measurements on samples. Multivariate analysis was used to investigate the results. Solid-state fermentation resulted in increased 11 times the protein content of both by-products. Instrumental texture analysis revealed that high dietary fibre content increases hardness and cohesiveness. All cereal bars presented average scores of 7/10 for sensorial attributes and average 4/5 for purchase intention.
During the storage period the cereal bars presented increases in the textural parameters when compared to the control bars. However, all samples revealed compositional stability during the 28-day test period. The overall results suggest that the addition of protein-enriched by-products is an alternative to add nutritional and economic value to cereal bars. Read more
Algae
Algae is sustainable, multifunctional and totally natural, found in the majority of ecosystems. As well as protein, its nutritional profile includes vitamins, minerals, fat and fibre. Commercial algae proteins are produced and harvested from both macro and micro-algae.
Researchers from the Meat Technology Center of Galicia have been investigating the impact of soy protein replacement by legumes and algae based proteins on the quality of chicken rotti. The addition of different protein sources (soy, bean, lentil, broad bean, Spirulina, and Chlorella) on nutritional, physicochemical and sensory properties of chicken rotti was evaluated. Significant changes were observed in physicochemical composition, textural properties and amino acid content of chicken rotti after adding the proteins from different sources, influencing sensory acceptance and preference.
They used their TA.XT2 Texture Analyser to perform Textural Profile Analysis on samples. Spirulina and Chlorella rotti presented a slight increase of pH and seaweed caused a decrease in some colour parameters. The highest lipids contents were found in chicken rotti added of with Spirulina and lentil proteins. Chicken rotti prepared with lentil protein also showed the highest values for ash content. Chicken rotti enriched with seaweed protein presented the highest total amino acid content. Principal component analysis showed that broad beans and lentils proteins as interesting ingredients to replace soy protein in chicken rotti. Find out more
Scientists from the Meat Technology Center of Galicia (Spain) have also been researching the replacement of soy protein with other legumes or algae in turkey breast formulation, observing the changes in physicochemical and technological properties. Currently, many meat products are made with soy protein in order to improve their nutritional profile. This is an inconvenience for people allergic to soy, and therefore it is necessary to look for alternatives to this protein to improve their quality of life. In this study, changes in the physicochemical and nutritional properties of cooked turkey breast containing various sources of alternative proteins to soy proteins (pea, broad bean, lentil, Spirulina and Chlorella) were evaluated.
Samples formulated with algae showed significant changes to physical parameters and chemical composition of cooked turkey breast. Colour parameters were also affected by protein source, showing the highest L* values in samples prepared with Chlorella and Spirulina protein. On the other hand, a* values were lower in cooked turkey breasts containing algal proteins compared to the control. Regarding textural parameters, the cooked turkey breast samples prepared with Chlorella protein showed the lowest hardness values compared to those elaborated with soy protein.
The replacement of soy protein by the other algae and vegetable protein sources did not change the adhesiveness values. The amino acid profile was improved when complemented with Spirulina protein, presenting the highest levels of essential amino acids. In addition, the ratio between essential and non‐essential amino acids increased. Hence, this study demonstrates that the inclusion of algae proteins can be considered as an alternative to soy proteins for cooked turkey breast formulations and can be a novel source of proteins for people allergic to soy proteins. Find out more
Cultured or ‘clean’ meat
Cultured meat products are grown in the laboratory, outside of the animal’s body. They are grown from cells sourced from animal muscle and tissue taken by a biopsy from the animal under anaesthesia.
Researchers from the University of Reading have been investigating the potential of a sunflower seed by-product as animal fat replacer in healthier frankfurters. Upcycled defatted sunflower seed flour (SUN), a by-product obtained from sunflower oil extraction, was used as an animal fat replacer to develop healthier frankfurters. For that end, animal fat was part replaced with water and SUN. Nutritional composition, technological, structural and sensorial properties were evaluated. SUN incorporation led to a significant increase in protein, minerals (magnesium, potassium, copper and manganese) and a decrease in fat content.
The incorporation of SUN in frankfurters promoted the presence of phenolic compounds. Increasing SUN addition lead to an increasingly darker frankfurter colour. Samples with SUN at 4% were firmer than the control according to TPA and sensory analysis results and showed the highest lipid disorder attributed to more lipid interactions in the meat matrix.
They used their TA.XTplus Texture Analyser to perform texture profile analysis. SUN addition as an animal fat replacer in frankfurters is a feasible strategy to valorise sunflower oil by-products and obtain healthier frankfurters. In the future, SUN could also be used as an animal fat alternative in plant-based meat substitutes or cell-cultured meat products as part of an effort to replace animal products and have a positive impact on animal welfare and the environment. Find out more
3D printed meat
3D printers build objects layer by layer to very precise specifications. In the case of 3D printed meat, the building material is either plant matter or animal cells grown in a lab. 3D printing allows the meat structure to be perfectly tailored, fine tuning it to match the mouthfeel and textural parameters of a real piece of meat. A Texture Analyser is essential for this research process.
Scientists from the Indian Institute of Food Processing Technology have been researching customised shapes for chicken meat-based products in a feasibility study on 3D printed nuggets. They recognise that 3D food printing is revolutionising the food manufacturing process and offers unmatched levels of customisation in terms of appearance and nutrition. Though flesh foods have a huge market potential, to date, no study details the printability of chicken meat. Their investigations report the printability of ground chicken meat; refined wheat flour was used as an additive at different levels of ground chicken meat to improve its printability.
For the optimised 2:1 formulation, extrusion printing variables such as nozzle height, nozzle size, printing speed, extrusion rate, extrusion motor speed and extrusion pressure were optimised. They used their TA.HDplus Texture Analyser to measure the mechanical strength of material supplies. The 3D-printed sample was post-processed by hot-air drying followed by deep frying. Crispy 3D-printed chicken nuggets with an energy value of 166.72 ± 0.07 kcal/100 g could be made available in any customised shape, providing insights for futuristic applications, particularly in the fast-food industry. Read more
Scientists from Dalian Polytechnic University (China) have been researching the feasibility of hydrocolloid incorporated 3D printed pork as a dysphagia food. The effect of the independent and combined addition of xanthan gum and guar gum on the rheological, textural, and microstructural properties of 3D printed cooked pork paste was examined. Shear-thinning behaviour and self-supporting ability were observed for all the samples, resulting in upright printing performance. Upon post-processing by freezing at −18°C, heating at 100°C for 7 min, and cooling to 37°C, significant textural differences were recorded.
They used their TA.XTplus Texture Analyser to perform extrusion tests on paste samples. The control sample displayed higher hardness, chewiness, and cohesiveness than the samples with added hydrocolloids, revealed by a lower loss tangent (more elastic-like behaviour), and a denser microstructure observed in the cryo-SEM micrographs. Whereas, the samples with hydrocolloids presented a visible extended network with heterogeneous cavity size, suggesting additional water retention and a more viscous-like behaviour than the control sample after post-processing, thus categorised as potential transitional food within the International Dysphagia Diet Standardisation Initiative (IDDSI) Framework. Find out more
Insects
Insects provide a protein source with a high feed-conversion efficiency rate (an animal's capacity to convert feed into increased body mass). They also require much less water than traditional meat sources such as poultry or cattle. The challenge lies in introducing insect protein into the Western diet. This has to begin with ingredient replacement in existing foods, one example of which is meat products.
Researchers from the German Institute of Food Technologies have been investigating the structure design of insect-based meat analogues with high-moisture extrusion. A rapid increase of world population and a lack of traditional protein sources create preconditions for the search of alternatives and development of new acceptable food products. Insects are currently perceived as an alternative source of proteins in a few European countries. Twin screw high-moisture extrusion applied to the mixture of protein concentrates (insect with concentration of 15–50% dry matter and soy) and water resulted in fibrous meat analogues with hardness texture and protein composition similar to meat. They used their TA.XT2i Texture Analyser to perform hardness measurements.
The best result (most similar to a standard soy-based sample) was highlighted for the mixture of protein concentrates (40% Alphitobius diaperinus and 60% soy dry matter). Scanning electron microscopy indicated further improvement of texture for the samples with 5–10% of soy fibre. Read more
Worldwide determination to push forward the use of alternative proteins is driving a large research effort in both academic and industrial settings. A large component of this research is based around Texture Analysis, ensuring the alternative protein sources provide products that will be picked up in a competitive market.
For more information on how to measure texture, please visit the Texture Analysis Properties section on our website.
The TA.XTplus texture analyser is part of a family of texture analysis instruments
and equipment from Stable Micro Systems. An extensive portfolio of
specialist attachments is available to measure and analyse the textural properties of a huge range of food products. Our technical experts can also custom design instrument fixtures according to individual specifications.No-one understands texture analysis like we do!
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